How to Conduct a Hardware-Layer Risk Assessment: A Practical Guide Aligned with NIST CSF

Introd uction: Shadow IT Was Just the Beginning For years, CISOs have battled Shadow IT — the apps, cloud services, and software tools users bring into the organisation without approval. Most security teams now have processes to monitor, restrict, or integrate those unauthorised services. But a new, far more dangerous threat is emerging: Shadow Hardware. These are the physical devices — many of them small, discreet, or seemingly harmless — that enter your environment without approval, monitoring, or security validation. They connect instantly, operate silently, and pose a level of risk that Shadow IT never could. Unmanaged and unseen hardware isn’t just an operational problem. It’s becoming a major compliance challenge, particularly for frameworks that assume complete asset visibility. CISOs are now realising that if Shadow IT was a storm, Shadow Hardware is the hurricane behind it. What Exactly Is Shadow Hardware? Shadow Hardware refers to any physical device connected to your environment without explicit approval or visibility. These devices often enter networks unnoticed because traditional tools rely on agent installations, software identifiers, or manual onboarding processes. Shadow Hardware includes: USB devices that impersonate keyboards or network adapters IoT sensors and smart devices deployed without IT oversight Personal laptops, tablets, or phones connected to internal networks Rogue access points or Wi-Fi repeaters Unauthorised peripherals such as cameras, dongles, or storage devices Devices intentionally disguised or spoofed to blend in These assets create a blind spot that software-based tools simply cannot close. Shadow Hardware thrives in environments where users can connect any device to a port, plug into a network, or join a wireless segment with ease. Why Shadow Hardware Is a Bigger Problem Than Shadow IT Shadow IT creates data and compliance challenges, but Shadow Hardware creates something far more serious: direct network risk. Once a physical device connects, it’s inside the boundary. It doesn’t need credentials, It doesn’t need permission, It just needs a port. This makes Shadow Hardware particularly dangerous because: Many devices can spoof trusted identities, making them appear legitimate. A compromised device can bypass access controls before software tools even detect it. Rogue hardware can exfiltrate data, create backdoors, or manipulate network flows. Insider threats can introduce hardware tools without leaving a digital trace. IoT devices often run outdated firmware and default credentials. Shadow Hardware turns the physical layer into a hidden attack surface — one that traditional cybersecurity stacks were never built to see. Why Frameworks Are Tightening Requirements Around Hardware Visibility Frameworks like NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA BOD 23-01 increasingly emphasise complete asset visibility — including physical devices. They assume organisations can confidently answer questions like: What devices are connected right now? Who authorised them? Are they genuine? Do they comply with policy? Are they managed, unmanaged, or rogue? For many organisations, the answer is: “We don’t know.” This uncertainty is exactly what regulators are trying to eliminate. Compliance frameworks expect real-time accuracy, not estimates. Shadow Hardware makes compliance nearly impossible because it operates outside the systems designed to track assets. If you can’t see the device, you can’t secure it — and you certainly can’t prove compliance. The Visibility Gap: Why Traditional Tools Can't Detect Shadow Hardware Most cybersecurity tools depend on software fingerprints. They identify assets through methods like agent installations, MAC addresses, vendor IDs, operating system reports and authenticated scans. But Shadow Hardware doesn’t have to follow these rules. A rogue USB can claim to be a keyboard. A malicious access point can spoof a trusted MAC address. A compromised device can masquerade as something benign. When tools rely on what a device claims to be, they become easy to fool. Shadow Hardware exploits this flaw by hiding in the gaps — between ports, between scans, and between layers of software visibility. This is why the physical layer has become the newest front in cybersecurity. And it’s where Sepio stands out. How Sepio Exposes Shadow Hardware Instantly Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform introduces a radically different approach to device visibility. Instead of relying on software identifiers or installed agents, it identifies devices using Hardware DNA — a fingerprint based on physical and electrical characteristics. This means that even if a device tries to disguise itself, Sepio sees its real identity. When Shadow Hardware connects, Sepio: Recognises the device instantly Detects whether it matches an approved profile Flags rogue or previously unseen devices Identifies spoofed peripherals Assigns a risk score based on behaviour and trust level Triggers enforcement actions automatically This closes the visibility gap completely. No Shadow Hardware can operate without immediate detection. Shadow Hardware and Compliance: The Coming Storm for CISOs Compliance is shifting from documentation to evidence. Regulators and auditors no longer accept theoretical asset inventories — they want real-time facts. Shadow Hardware disrupts compliance across multiple areas: NIST CSF: violates the Identify and Protect functions by introducing unverified assets. CIS Controls 1–2: breaks the requirement to inventory and control enterprise and software assets. CISA BOD 23-01: makes continuous asset discovery impossible. GDPR Article 32: undermines security of processing by enabling unauthorised data access. A single rogue device can invalidate your compliance posture — even if everything else is aligned. CISOs that mastered Shadow IT must now apply the same discipline, vigilance, and visibility to hardware. How Zerium Helps Organisations Eliminate Shadow Hardware Technology is only half the answer. To truly eliminate Shadow Hardware, organisations need strategy, policy, and operational implementation — all of which Zerium provides. As the UK’s authorised partner for Sepio, Zerium helps organisations: Establish hardware-layer Zero Trust policies Integrate Hardware DNA insights into compliance programmes Build processes to manage and verify all devices Detect, classify, and respond to rogue hardware activity Align with frameworks including NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA directives Reduce risk in environments where unmanaged devices are common Zerium makes hardware visibility not just possible, but practical — and sustainable. Conclusion: Shadow Hardware Is the New Frontier — Visibility Is the New Requirement Shadow IT changed how CISOs think about applications. Shadow Hardware is about to change how they think about everything else. Devices that operate outside approval are no longer rare — they’re becoming the rule in hybrid workplaces, IoT-rich environments, and distributed networks. To meet modern compliance expectations and build a truly secure Zero Trust environment, CISOs must gain full, continuous visibility into the physical layer. With Sepio’s Hardware DNA technology and Zerium’s framework-aligned expertise , organisations can finally eliminate the blind spots Shadow Hardware depends on. Because in the modern enterprise, if you can’t see the device, you can’t trust it. And if you can’t trust it — you can’t secure it.

Introd uction: Shadow IT Was Just the Beginning For years, CISOs have battled Shadow IT — the apps, cloud services, and software tools users bring into the organisation without approval. Most security teams now have processes to monitor, restrict, or integrate those unauthorised services. But a new, far more dangerous threat is emerging: Shadow Hardware. These are the physical devices — many of them small, discreet, or seemingly harmless — that enter your environment without approval, monitoring, or security validation. They connect instantly, operate silently, and pose a level of risk that Shadow IT never could. Unmanaged and unseen hardware isn’t just an operational problem. It’s becoming a major compliance challenge, particularly for frameworks that assume complete asset visibility. CISOs are now realising that if Shadow IT was a storm, Shadow Hardware is the hurricane behind it. What Exactly Is Shadow Hardware? Shadow Hardware refers to any physical device connected to your environment without explicit approval or visibility. These devices often enter networks unnoticed because traditional tools rely on agent installations, software identifiers, or manual onboarding processes. Shadow Hardware includes: USB devices that impersonate keyboards or network adapters IoT sensors and smart devices deployed without IT oversight Personal laptops, tablets, or phones connected to internal networks Rogue access points or Wi-Fi repeaters Unauthorised peripherals such as cameras, dongles, or storage devices Devices intentionally disguised or spoofed to blend in These assets create a blind spot that software-based tools simply cannot close. Shadow Hardware thrives in environments where users can connect any device to a port, plug into a network, or join a wireless segment with ease. Why Shadow Hardware Is a Bigger Problem Than Shadow IT Shadow IT creates data and compliance challenges, but Shadow Hardware creates something far more serious: direct network risk. Once a physical device connects, it’s inside the boundary. It doesn’t need credentials, It doesn’t need permission, It just needs a port. This makes Shadow Hardware particularly dangerous because: Many devices can spoof trusted identities, making them appear legitimate. A compromised device can bypass access controls before software tools even detect it. Rogue hardware can exfiltrate data, create backdoors, or manipulate network flows. Insider threats can introduce hardware tools without leaving a digital trace. IoT devices often run outdated firmware and default credentials. Shadow Hardware turns the physical layer into a hidden attack surface — one that traditional cybersecurity stacks were never built to see. Why Frameworks Are Tightening Requirements Around Hardware Visibility Frameworks like NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA BOD 23-01 increasingly emphasise complete asset visibility — including physical devices. They assume organisations can confidently answer questions like: What devices are connected right now? Who authorised them? Are they genuine? Do they comply with policy? Are they managed, unmanaged, or rogue? For many organisations, the answer is: “We don’t know.” This uncertainty is exactly what regulators are trying to eliminate. Compliance frameworks expect real-time accuracy, not estimates. Shadow Hardware makes compliance nearly impossible because it operates outside the systems designed to track assets. If you can’t see the device, you can’t secure it — and you certainly can’t prove compliance. The Visibility Gap: Why Traditional Tools Can't Detect Shadow Hardware Most cybersecurity tools depend on software fingerprints. They identify assets through methods like agent installations, MAC addresses, vendor IDs, operating system reports and authenticated scans. But Shadow Hardware doesn’t have to follow these rules. A rogue USB can claim to be a keyboard. A malicious access point can spoof a trusted MAC address. A compromised device can masquerade as something benign. When tools rely on what a device claims to be, they become easy to fool. Shadow Hardware exploits this flaw by hiding in the gaps — between ports, between scans, and between layers of software visibility. This is why the physical layer has become the newest front in cybersecurity. And it’s where Sepio stands out. How Sepio Exposes Shadow Hardware Instantly Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform introduces a radically different approach to device visibility. Instead of relying on software identifiers or installed agents, it identifies devices using Hardware DNA — a fingerprint based on physical and electrical characteristics. This means that even if a device tries to disguise itself, Sepio sees its real identity. When Shadow Hardware connects, Sepio: Recognises the device instantly Detects whether it matches an approved profile Flags rogue or previously unseen devices Identifies spoofed peripherals Assigns a risk score based on behaviour and trust level Triggers enforcement actions automatically This closes the visibility gap completely. No Shadow Hardware can operate without immediate detection. Shadow Hardware and Compliance: The Coming Storm for CISOs Compliance is shifting from documentation to evidence. Regulators and auditors no longer accept theoretical asset inventories — they want real-time facts. Shadow Hardware disrupts compliance across multiple areas: NIST CSF: violates the Identify and Protect functions by introducing unverified assets. CIS Controls 1–2: breaks the requirement to inventory and control enterprise and software assets. CISA BOD 23-01: makes continuous asset discovery impossible. GDPR Article 32: undermines security of processing by enabling unauthorised data access. A single rogue device can invalidate your compliance posture — even if everything else is aligned. CISOs that mastered Shadow IT must now apply the same discipline, vigilance, and visibility to hardware. How Zerium Helps Organisations Eliminate Shadow Hardware Technology is only half the answer. To truly eliminate Shadow Hardware, organisations need strategy, policy, and operational implementation — all of which Zerium provides. As the UK’s authorised partner for Sepio, Zerium helps organisations: Establish hardware-layer Zero Trust policies Integrate Hardware DNA insights into compliance programmes Build processes to manage and verify all devices Detect, classify, and respond to rogue hardware activity Align with frameworks including NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA directives Reduce risk in environments where unmanaged devices are common Zerium makes hardware visibility not just possible, but practical — and sustainable. Conclusion: Shadow Hardware Is the New Frontier — Visibility Is the New Requirement Shadow IT changed how CISOs think about applications. Shadow Hardware is about to change how they think about everything else. Devices that operate outside approval are no longer rare — they’re becoming the rule in hybrid workplaces, IoT-rich environments, and distributed networks. To meet modern compliance expectations and build a truly secure Zero Trust environment, CISOs must gain full, continuous visibility into the physical layer. With Sepio’s Hardware DNA technology and Zerium’s framework-aligned expertise , organisations can finally eliminate the blind spots Shadow Hardware depends on. Because in the modern enterprise, if you can’t see the device, you can’t trust it. And if you can’t trust it — you can’t secure it.

Introduction: The Supply Chain Threat That’s Already Inside the Network Supply chain risk has become one of the biggest challenges in cybersecurity — but most organisations are only looking at one side of the problem. They examine software vulnerabilities, supplier credentials, delivery processes, and contractual obligations. Yet a far more dangerous threat often arrives quietly, hidden inside the devices themselves: compromised hardware. Modern attackers don’t need to breach your network directly. They infiltrate the supply chain upstream, embedding malicious components or modifying devices before they ever reach your organisation. By the time those devices plug into your infrastructure, the threat is already inside. This is the hardware supply chain risk most businesses are overlooking — and without visibility at the physical layer, you won’t know it’s there until it’s too late. Why Hardware Supply Chain Attacks Are So Effective Hardware compromises are incredibly difficult to detect with traditional cybersecurity tools. typical solutions focus on software behaviour, endpoint agents, OS integrity, or network traffic. But none of these tools verify the physical identity of the device itself. This is exactly why hardware-based attacks are so attractive to threat actors. A compromised device may look completely legitimate. It may run trusted software, behave normally, and pass all conventional security checks. Yet beneath the surface, it may contain malicious chips, altered circuitry, or hidden capabilities designed to intercept data, create backdoors, or pivot deeper into the network. These threats bypass software-based detection because they originate from the physical componentry — a layer most organisations simply don’t inspect. The danger is amplified by globalised manufacturing, third-party assemblers, and increasingly complex procurement chains. In short, businesses receive devices they assume are trustworthy, even though they have no visibility into how those devices were built, modified, or handled along the way. The Illusion of Trust in Today’s Hardware Supply Chain When a new device arrives, organisations tend to treat it as inherently trustworthy. Procurement teams validate warranties, IT verifies compatibility, and security teams ensure proper configurations. But none of these steps confirm whether the hardware itself was modified. Moreover, supply chain compromise doesn’t always happen intentionally. Sometimes it’s a result of poor quality control, insecure manufacturing environments, or unauthorised resellers introducing substitute components. Whatever the cause, the result is the same: devices enter your network with vulnerabilities you cannot see and cannot verify using standard security tools. This creates a dangerous assumption — that new hardware equals safe hardware. In reality, new hardware is one of the most unknown and least verified assets in any organisation. Why Traditional Security Tools Cannot Detect Hardware Tampering Endpoint agents, network scanners, and security suites depend on software identifiers — things like MAC addresses, vendor strings, driver information, and operating system details. A compromised device can mimic all of these. Software can lie. Hardware cannot. The hardware layer is the only place where tampering can be reliably detected, and yet it’s the one area most businesses have zero visibility into. This is why hardware supply chain attacks often remain undetected for months or even years. From the perspective of traditional tools, everything looks normal. Behind the scenes, a compromised component may be silently capturing keystrokes, creating a covert channel, or establishing a foothold inside your environment. To solve this problem, you need a way to verify devices based on their physical and electrical characteristics, not the data they report. This is exactly what Sepio introduces. How Sepio Identifies Compromised Hardware Before It Becomes a Threat Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform uses its patented Hardware DNA technology to identify devices at the most fundamental level possible — the physical layer. This approach doesn’t rely on agents, software, or device self-reporting. Instead, it analyses the unique electrical fingerprint of each device, comparing it against known trustworthy profiles. If a device contains unauthorised components, modified circuitry, or spoofed identifiers, its physical fingerprint simply won’t match. Sepio detects this instantly. This means hardware supply chain attacks are identified the moment the device connects — even if the device pretends to be legitimate, its software matches expected values, or no behaviour appears malicious. Sepio exposes the truth that other tools can’t see. This level of visibility is critical for organisations that rely on hardware from multiple suppliers, operate in regulated sectors, or manage environments where rogue devices could compromise safety, compliance, or sensitive data. From Procurement to Deployment: Closing the Hardware Trust Gap Hardware supply chain risk doesn’t end when a device is purchased — it continues throughout its lifecycle. Devices that appear trustworthy on Day 1 may be altered, swapped, or tampered with before deployment, during maintenance, or even by internal actors. Sepio gives organisations the ability to track and verify devices at every stage, ensuring that: the device you purchased is the device you installed, no unauthorised components have been added, no malicious peripherals have been attached, and no hidden hardware implants are operating on the network. This turns hardware trust into an ongoing, measurable security process rather than a one-time assumption. Why Zerium Is the Key to Successful Supply Chain Risk Mitigation Technology alone isn’t enough — organisations also need strategy, policy alignment, and operational expertise. That’s where Zerium comes in. As the UK’s authorised partner for Sepio, Zerium provides a complete approach to hardware supply chain risk, including: analysing procurement and asset onboarding processes, establishing hardware verification policies, aligning security controls with frameworks like NIST CSF and CIS Controls, ensuring continuous monitoring of hardware integrity, and integrating Sepio visibility into your wider security operations. This combination of technology and consulting ensures that supply chain risk is managed proactively, not reactively. Conclusion: You Can’t Trust What You Can’t See Hardware supply chain attacks aren’t theoretical — they’re happening today, and they’re getting harder to detect. Traditional tools can’t uncover them because they rely on software-based visibility, which attackers can easily manipulate. Sepio’s Hardware DNA technology changes the game by revealing the physical truth behind every device. And with Zerium’s expertise, organisations can transform that visibility into a complete supply chain security strategy. If you want genuine security, you need genuine hardware verification — because trust doesn’t start when the device arrives. It starts when you can finally see what it really is.

Security Has Outgrown the Agent For years, cybersecurity has relied on a familiar formula: install an agent, scan the device, feed the data into a central platform, and hope nothing slips through the cracks. But today’s environments don’t work that way anymore. Modern networks are a mix of managed endpoints, unmanaged IoT devices, BYOD, operational technology, contractor hardware, and peripherals that never support agents at all. The result? A huge portion of your environment becomes invisible the moment you rely solely on agent-based tools. This is where agentless cybersecurity — specifically passive hardware visibility — becomes not just beneficial, but essential. Why Agent-Based Tools No Longer Go Far Enough Agent-based solutions were designed for predictable environments: corporate laptops, servers, and standardised devices. But real-world infrastructure has shifted dramatically. Today’s organisations face challenges such as: Devices that cannot run agents (printers, sensors, CCTV, industrial controllers). Devices that should not run agents due to regulatory or operational constraints. Devices that will not run agents, because users disable them or they never install correctly. Devices that deliberately hide, spoofing their identity to evade detection. When visibility depends on agents, each of these devices becomes a blind spot. And blind spots are exactly where threats thrive. This creates a growing risk: the more diverse your hardware ecosystem becomes, the less effective your traditional security stack becomes at protecting it. The Rise of Passive, Agentless Threat Detection Agentless cybersecurity takes a completely different approach. Instead of interrogating devices directly, it observes the environment and identifies assets based on their physical and electrical signatures. This approach aligns perfectly with how modern networks actually behave: dynamic, complex, and full of unknown or unmanaged devices. Passive visibility allows organisations to: Discover every device the moment it connects. Identify unmanaged or rogue hardware that agents can’t detect. Eliminate the operational burden of installing and maintaining agents. Avoid downtime, disruption, or compatibility issues. Meet compliance requirements for continuous asset discovery. Instead of relying on devices to “self-report,” passive tools uncover the truth by analysing what’s really happening on the network. Why Sepio Leads the Agentless Cybersecurity Movement Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform goes beyond traditional agentless tools by using its patented Hardware DNA technology — a capability unmatched in the cybersecurity market. Rather than looking at software identifiers, IP addresses, or vendor strings, Sepio identifies devices based on their physical and electrical fingerprint. That means: Spoofed devices can’t fake their identity. Rogue peripherals can’t impersonate trusted devices. Hardware implants can’t hide behind legitimate software signatures. This kind of visibility is crucial in environments where trust can't rely on user behaviour, agent installations, or software integrity alone. Sepio sees every device — including the ones you didn’t know existed. Why Passive Hardware Visibility Changes the Entire Security Model What makes passive, agentless visibility transformative is that it solves problems organisations have struggled with for years, including: The problem of scale It doesn’t matter how many devices join your network — Sepio sees them instantly, with no configuration needed on the endpoint. The problem of compliance Frameworks like NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA BOD 23-01 all require complete asset inventories. You simply cannot meet these requirements without full, agentless visibility. The problem of Zero Trust Zero Trust collapses when unknown devices slip through. Passive hardware fingerprinting ensures that trust starts at the physical layer — not the software layer. The problem of operational disruption Deploying agents across thousands of devices is resource-intensive. Passive systems detect everything without touching the endpoint. In other words, passive hardware visibility doesn’t just improve security — it simplifies it. Agentless Cybersecurity in the Real World Imagine this scenario: A malicious USB device is plugged into a workstation. Traditional tools may see “a keyboard,” because that’s what the device claims to be. An agent might not even detect it at all. But Sepio identifies that the device’s electrical fingerprint doesn’t match a legitimate keyboard — flagging it instantly as rogue. No agents. No scans. No assumptions. Just truth. This is what agentless cybersecurity was designed for: real-time, real-world hardware threats that existing tools simply miss. Why Organisations Are Moving Toward Agentless Strategies Across finance, healthcare, critical infrastructure, government, and manufacturing, organisations are reaching the same conclusion: Agentless, passive detection is no longer optional — it’s inevitable. The reasons are clear: It’s faster than agent deployments. It’s broader than software-based visibility. It’s more accurate than self-reported device data. It’s fully aligned with Zero Trust and compliance frameworks. It eliminates shadow hardware, not just shadow IT. When paired with Zerium’s consulting expertise, organisations gain the strategy, implementation support, and framework alignment needed to turn passive visibility into operational resilience. Conclusion: The Future of Threat Detection Is Agentless Cybersecurity has evolved beyond the limits of agent-based tools. Modern networks need continuous, passive, hardware-level visibility — the kind of insight that only agentless systems can deliver. With Sepio’s Hardware DNA technology and Zerium’s framework-aligned guidance, organisations finally gain a complete, accurate view of every device touching their infrastructure. No agents. No blind spots. No unknown devices. Just total visibility — the foundation of modern cybersecurity.

Zero Trust Has a Blind Spot Zero Trust has become the gold standard of modern cybersecurity. The principle is simple: never trust, always verify. Organisations spend vast resources building architectures where every user, application, and network request must authenticate before access is granted. Yet even the most mature Zero-Trust environments share a critical flaw — they rarely verify the hardware itself. Unseen, unmanaged, or spoofed devices can silently bypass Zero-Trust controls, undermining every layer of security above them. To achieve genuine Zero Trust, you must start where trust begins: the physical device. Zero Trust Explained — and Where It Falls Short The Zero Trust Architecture (ZTA) framework, as defined by NIST SP 800-207, centres on continuous verification. Every action, user, and system must be authenticated and authorised before being trusted. Most organisations interpret this through: Identity and access management (IAM) solutions. Network segmentation and micro-perimeters. Continuous monitoring and anomaly detection. These are all critical — but they rely on one key assumption: that every connected device is known, verified, and trustworthy. Unfortunately, that assumption is often false. Traditional Zero-Trust models focus on software and credentials, not the hardware underneath. This leaves the hardware layer — the literal foundation of the network — outside the trust equation. The Hardware Blind Spot in Zero Trust Every day, new devices join enterprise networks: laptops, IoT sensors, USB peripherals, industrial controllers, contractor systems, and more. Not all of them are managed. Not all of them are legitimate. A few examples of how the hardware layer undermines Zero Trust: Rogue USB devices that masquerade as keyboards or network adapters. Spoofed peripherals that impersonate trusted endpoints. Unmanaged IoT devices connected in shadow IT environments. Supply-chain implants that introduce malicious components before deployment. Each of these can bypass traditional identity checks — because the Zero-Trust system recognises the software, but not the physical origin of the device. Without hardware verification, Zero Trust becomes half-trust. The Missing Layer: Hardware-Level Verification A true Zero-Trust model must extend verification to every connected device — down to the hardware fingerprint. That’s where Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform delivers something transformative. Using its patented Hardware DNA technology, Sepio doesn’t rely on software identifiers or agent-based checks. Instead, it analyses the physical and electrical characteristics of every connected device, creating a unique, immutable fingerprint that can’t be cloned or spoofed. This provides: Complete visibility of every device — managed, unmanaged, or rogue. Real-time detection of unauthorised hardware activity. Policy enforcement that automatically blocks or isolates unknown devices. Zero-trust validation at the hardware layer, not just the logical one. Through its partnership with Zerium, Sepio’s technology is deployed across UK organisations looking to achieve true Zero Trust — not just the version that stops at the software layer. Integrating Hardware Visibility into a Zero-Trust Framework To build a Zero-Trust strategy that includes the hardware layer, organisations should follow these key steps: Identify Every Device (The Foundation Layer) Begin with full asset discovery. Use agentless tools like Sepio to detect every connected device — even those unmanaged or hidden. Build a complete asset inventory that feeds into your Zero-Trust policy engine. Verify Device Integrity (The Trust Layer) Establish trust based on physical device DNA, not just logical identity. Ensure every device connecting to your network matches a known, verified hardware fingerprint. Enforce Policy Automatically (The Control Layer) Integrate hardware visibility data into access control systems. Block, quarantine, or restrict unknown or unauthorised devices in real time. Monitor Continuously (The Assurance Layer) Trust is not static — verification must be continuous. Sepio provides real-time monitoring of all hardware changes or anomalies, alerting teams instantly to potential breaches. Align with Compliance Frameworks (The Governance Layer) Integrate this process with existing compliance goals — NIST CSF, CIS Controls, and CISA directives all require complete asset visibility. Prove compliance through verifiable data rather than assumptions. This structured approach creates a hardware-informed Zero-Trust model that closes the gap between physical and digital security. Why Hardware-Level Zero Trust Is Non-Negotiable Zero Trust without hardware verification is like locking your front door while leaving the window open. Attackers are increasingly exploiting devices and peripherals that traditional defences can’t see. By including the hardware layer: Insider threats are reduced — unauthorised devices can’t connect undetected. Compliance improves — frameworks like NIST and CISA require asset-level visibility. Incident response strengthens — faster detection and remediation of rogue devices. Confidence increases — Zero Trust becomes a provable, enforceable reality. The move toward hardware-level visibility isn’t optional anymore; it’s the next evolution of Zero Trust. How Zerium and Sepio Enable Hardware-Level Zero Trust Zerium, as the UK’s authorised Sepio partner, brings strategic expertise and implementation support to ensure a seamless transition to hardware-level Zero Trust. Zerium’s consulting process includes: Hardware risk assessments tailored to your existing Zero-Trust architecture. Policy and framework alignment with NIST, CIS, and CISA guidelines. Integration of Sepio’s visibility data into your security operations. Ongoing enablement, monitoring, and compliance validation. Together, Zerium and Sepio give organisations the ability to see, trust, and control every device — down to the port level. Trust Begins at the Physical Layer Zero Trust was never meant to stop at the network edge. It was meant to eliminate blind spots and enforce verification everywhere — including the hardware beneath the software. With Sepio’s hardware DNA and Zerium’s expertise, organisations can finally achieve the purest form of Zero Trust: One where no device connects unverified, no hardware remains invisible, and trust begins where it truly matters — at the physical layer. Because in the modern enterprise, Zero Trust starts with Zero Unknown Devices.

From Policy to Proof Every cybersecurity leader knows the CIS Critical Security Controls (CIS Controls). They’re one of the most widely adopted frameworks for improving cyber hygiene and reducing risk. But while most organisations document compliance, very few can prove it. The reason? Their visibility stops at the software layer. True implementation requires a complete view of hardware assets — the physical devices that support every system, connection, and user. That’s where Sepio’s Asset DNA technology, delivered in partnership with Zerium, transforms the CIS Controls from a checklist into a living, measurable defence framework. CIS Controls: A Quick Refresher The CIS Controls are a set of safeguards and best practices developed by the Center for Internet Security. They guide organisations toward prioritised, actionable improvements that reduce the most common cyber threats. The first five — often called the Foundational Controls — are especially critical:  Inventory and Control of Enterprise Assets Inventory and Control of Software Assets Data Protection Secure Configuration of Enterprise Assets and Software Account Management Every one of these controls assumes one fundamental capability: you can see and verify your assets. Without that visibility, compliance becomes theoretical — and risk management becomes reactive. The Problem: CIS Controls Assume Hardware Visibility Most compliance programmes rely on software-based discovery tools that track managed endpoints and applications. These tools work well for known assets but leave a vast blind spot at the hardware layer. This leads to several hidden risks: Unmanaged or rogue devices that connect undetected. Spoofed peripherals that impersonate trusted hardware. Shadow IT and IoT assets operating outside policy. Supply-chain implants introduced during procurement. Each of these breaks compliance with Control 1 (Inventory and Control of Enterprise Assets) — often without triggering an alert. To move from policy to proof, you need hardware DNA-level visibility — the ability to verify every physical device, not just the ones that report themselves. Sepio’s Asset DNA: The Missing Piece in CIS Implementation Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform introduces visibility where other tools stop. Its patented Hardware DNA technology analyses the electrical and physical characteristics of every connected device, creating an immutable fingerprint that can’t be spoofed or cloned. This unique approach provides: Agentless discovery – No need to install software or disrupt operations. Passive monitoring – Continuous hardware visibility across all environments. Real-time risk scoring – Instantly identifies rogue or unauthorised assets. Policy enforcement – Automatically blocks or isolates devices that don’t meet trust standards. By integrating this visibility into your CIS Controls implementation, you replace assumptions with evidence — and documentation with data. How Sepio + Zerium Operationalise the First Five CIS Controls Below is a practical breakdown of how Zerium and Sepio help organisations implement the first five CIS Controls in the field. Control 1: Inventory and Control of Enterprise Assets Challenge: You can’t manage what you can’t see — especially unmanaged or rogue hardware. Solution: Sepio discovers every connected device, using Hardware DNA to verify authenticity. Zerium aligns this visibility with your CIS asset management policies, ensuring your inventory is both accurate and auditable. Control 2: Inventory and Control of Software Assets Challenge: Rogue or unapproved hardware can run unverified software that escapes detection. Solution: By identifying the hardware first, Sepio ensures that only authorised devices — and therefore authorised software — can operate in your environment. Control 3: Data Protection Challenge: Unverified hardware introduces data leakage risks and regulatory exposure. Solution: Sepio blocks or isolates unauthorised devices, ensuring that only trusted hardware can access sensitive data or processing environments, aligning with GDPR and CIS requirements. Control 4: Secure Configuration of Enterprise Assets and Software Challenge: Devices configured outside of approved standards often enter networks undetected. Solution: Zerium helps align hardware configuration baselines with CIS standards, while Sepio continuously validates that each device matches its approved fingerprint. Control 5: Account Management Challenge: Hardware-level impersonation undermines identity-based security models. Solution: Hardware DNA provides a physical verification layer for devices associated with user accounts, preventing unauthorised access through spoofed endpoints. Turning Compliance into Continuous Assurance Implementing CIS Controls shouldn’t be a one-time project. With Sepio ARM, organisations achieve continuous compliance — hardware visibility that never stops monitoring. Here’s how Zerium enables this in practice: Integrate Sepio’s live asset data with your SIEM or compliance dashboards. Automate alerts and policy enforcement for rogue hardware events. Generate auditable reports that prove CIS Control alignment in real time. Receive expert guidance from Zerium’s cybersecurity consultants on adapting your control environment as frameworks evolve. This approach moves your organisation beyond compliance — toward operational assurance that scales with your infrastructure. The Business Case for Hardware-Level CIS Compliance Moving from paper compliance to hardware-level enforcement offers tangible business value: Reduced risk: Rogue or unmanaged devices are identified before they cause harm. Audit readiness: Real-time, verifiable asset data accelerates compliance reviews. Operational efficiency: Fewer false positives and reduced manual asset tracking. Regulatory alignment: Meets the asset visibility requirements of NIST, CISA BOD 23-01, and GDPR. In short, CIS Controls become more than policy — they become provable. Zerium: Turning Frameworks into Action As a UK-based cybersecurity consultancy and authorised Sepio partner, Zerium helps organisations translate cybersecurity frameworks into operational controls. Their CIS implementation methodology includes: Framework gap analysis and control mapping. Sepio ARM deployment and configuration. Customised policy alignment with CIS Controls 1–5. Continuous monitoring, reporting, and enablement. The result? Full lifecycle compliance — from framework interpretation to field execution. Conclusion: Frameworks Are the Map — Visibility Is the Compass The CIS Controls provide the roadmap for a secure enterprise. But without hardware-layer visibility, you’re navigating blind. By pairing Sepio’s Asset DNA technology with Zerium’s implementation expertise, organisations gain the power to: See every device. Verify every connection. Enforce every control. That’s how frameworks move from policy to proof — and from the boardroom to the battlefield of real-world cybersecurity.

The Silent Gap in Cybersecurity Compliance Across industries, organisations invest millions to align with cybersecurity frameworks like NIST CSF, CIS Critical Security Controls, and CISA BOD 23-01. Policies are written, software tools are deployed, and dashboards glow green — proof, it seems, of compliance. But beneath the surface, a crucial layer remains invisible: the hardware itself. From unmanaged IoT devices to cloned network cards and rogue USB peripherals, unseen physical hardware introduces a compliance gap that can undo even the most mature cybersecurity posture. The uncomfortable truth? Framework compliance fails without hardware visibility — and most organisations don’t even realise it. The Hidden Dependency: Frameworks Assume Hardware Control When cybersecurity frameworks were created, they assumed one thing: That organisations could see all their assets — hardware and software alike. Here’s how that assumption plays out in practice: NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF): The Identify function explicitly requires an organisation to maintain a comprehensive understanding of its assets. Without complete visibility into every physical device connected to your environment, this requirement can’t be met. CIS Critical Security Controls (1–5): The very first control, Inventory and Control of Enterprise Assets, sets the tone for the rest. You cannot protect or manage what you haven’t identified — yet traditional tools only capture software-visible assets. CISA Binding Operational Directive 23-01: CISA now mandates continuous, automated asset discovery and vulnerability enumeration. If unmanaged or rogue hardware exists within your network, you’re already in violation of this directive. These frameworks rely on accurate, real-time hardware visibility — but most compliance strategies are built on software tools that can’t see beyond their own footprint. The Compliance Gap: When Software Can’t See Hardware Conventional asset discovery platforms depend on agents, credentials, and IP-based network scans. They excel at tracking known endpoints — laptops, servers, and managed devices — but fail when it comes to rogue or spoofed hardware that hides in plain sight. Consider a few real-world examples: A malicious USB impersonating a legitimate keyboard. A cloned network interface card copying the MAC address of a trusted device. An unmanaged IoT sensor connected to a secure operational network. Each of these can bypass detection, interact with sensitive systems, and exfiltrate data — without ever appearing in your inventory. This is the hardware visibility gap, and it’s the blind spot that leaves organisations apparently compliant but practically vulnerable. How Sepio Bridges the Hardware Visibility Gap Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform changes the equation by providing true hardware-layer visibility — independent of agents or software identifiers. Powered by its patented Hardware DNA technology, Sepio analyses the physical and electrical characteristics of every connected device, creating a unique fingerprint that cannot be spoofed. This enables organisations to: Instantly identify every connected device — managed or unmanaged. Detect and block rogue or unauthorised hardware in real time. Enforce zero-trust at the physical layer, ensuring only approved devices can connect. Achieve measurable compliance with frameworks that depend on complete asset visibility. For UK organisations, Zerium brings this technology to life — delivering Sepio solutions with tailored implementation, risk assessment, and alignment to recognised cybersecurity frameworks. How Sepio + Zerium Enable Framework Alignment Here’s how hardware visibility supports compliance across major frameworks: NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) Core Function: Identify Requirement: Maintain an accurate, current inventory of assets. How Sepio Helps: Hardware DNA provides complete visibility of all connected devices, including unmanaged or hidden assets, ensuring you meet the Identify function requirements. CIS Critical Security Controls (1–2) Control 1: Inventory and Control of Enterprise Assets Control 2: Inventory and Control of Software Assets How Sepio Helps: Detects and classifies every physical device, even those without installed agents. Prevents unauthorised hardware from accessing your network, supporting both Controls 1 and 2. CISA Binding Operational Directive 23-01 Requirement: Continuous asset discovery and vulnerability enumeration. How Sepio Helps: Enables passive, agentless detection of every physical device, fulfilling the directive’s continuous discovery expectations. GDPR (Article 32 – Security of Processing) Requirement: Ensure system integrity and restrict unauthorised access to personal data. How Sepio Helps: Prevents unverified or spoofed devices from accessing environments containing personal or regulated data, directly supporting data protection requirements. By combining Sepio’s hardware intelligence with Zerium’s consulting expertise, organisations can move from theoretical compliance to evidence-based control. The New Compliance Standard: Visibility Before Policy As frameworks evolve toward outcome-based accountability, compliance will no longer be measured by paperwork or policy — but by proof. Zero-trust architectures, government mandates, and data protection regulations increasingly demand verifiable assurance that every connected device is trusted, managed, and compliant. That assurance begins with hardware visibility. You can’t enforce what you can’t see, and you can’t protect what you don’t know exists. Zerium and Sepio empower organisations to build compliance foundations that are not just documented — but defensible. See Everything, Secure Everything Cybersecurity frameworks were designed to reduce risk — but they all start with one shared assumption: visibility. When your tools can only see software, that assumption fails. When you can see the hardware layer, compliance transforms from a checkbox into a living, measurable defence. With Sepio’s Hardware DNA technology and Zerium’s implementation expertise, organisations can finally close the compliance gap — achieving the visibility that frameworks require and regulators expect. Because true compliance isn’t about policy. It’s about proof. And proof begins at the hardware layer.

The Overlooked Threat in Financial Cybersecurity The financial sector is a prime target for cybercriminals, with banks and financial institutions under constant pressure to safeguard sensitive data, ensure uptime, and remain compliant with stringent regulatory frameworks. In response, many organisations have heavily invested in software-based security measures—SIEM platforms, endpoint detection, firewalls, and identity access controls. Yet one of the most critical layers of security remains largely unaddressed: the physical hardware layer. Despite airtight digital defences, attackers often gain entry by exploiting a blind spot—physical devices connected to corporate networks that go undetected or unverified. From spoofed USB devices to personal laptops and unauthorised peripherals, these rogue endpoints are difficult to detect and even harder to manage using traditional security tools. And in fast-paced financial environments, where staff and contractors frequently connect new devices, this risk is both constant and largely invisible. The Risk Beneath the Surface Across trading floors, customer service centres, data centres, and remote branches, a wide variety of devices are connected and disconnected every day. These range from keyboards, mice, and scanners to external drives and diagnostic tools. The problem arises when devices are unknown, unmanaged, or maliciously altered—bypassing digital security protocols by entering through the very ports trusted by IT systems. Traditional security tools often rely on software identifiers like IP addresses or MAC addresses, which are easily spoofed. Worse, many assume that connected devices are trustworthy simply because they’re plugged in. This is a dangerous assumption in a sector where data integrity and system availability are non-negotiable. Sepio: Gaining Visibility Where It Matters Most Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform changes the game by offering a fundamentally different approach. Rather than relying on declared software identities, Sepio identifies and classifies connected hardware based on its physical-layer characteristics—known as Asset DNA. This allows financial institutions to detect and profile every device connected to their infrastructure, even those that appear identical on the surface. This level of visibility makes it possible to immediately distinguish between authorised devices and rogue or spoofed ones. More importantly, it enables real-time control. Unrecognised or high-risk hardware can be automatically blocked, quarantined, or flagged for investigation—before it poses a threat. Sepio’s agentless and passive architecture means there’s no interruption to business operations, no performance impact, and no need to install software on endpoints. It’s a seamless layer of security that operates beneath existing tools, complementing rather than complicating your tech stack. Strengthening Compliance and Building Resilience With constantly evolving regulations such as PCI-DSS, GDPR, and guidance from the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) and Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA), compliance is an ongoing concern for financial organisations. One of the key challenges lies in demonstrating asset control and access management—especially at the hardware level. Sepio helps solve this by delivering a continuously updated, auditable inventory of all connected devices. Security teams gain a reliable, centralised view of every endpoint, making it easier to enforce policy and generate accurate reports for auditors and regulators. Whether you're aligning to NIST, CIS Controls, or zero-trust frameworks, Sepio’s forensic-level visibility helps close compliance gaps and prove your security maturity. Real-World Impact in Financial Settings In a retail banking branch, Sepio can detect if a rogue USB has been inserted into a teller workstation. On a trading floor, it ensures that only authorised keyboards and headsets connect to sensitive terminals. In a contact centre, it helps prevent the use of personal devices that could compromise customer data. And in central IT environments, it provides peace of mind that no unvetted or spoofed hardware is quietly bypassing your controls. Even contractor access—often a weak point in hardware security—is made manageable, with instant detection of unauthorised tools and immediate enforcement of access policy. Why Sepio is Built for Finance In financial environments where every second counts and every risk is amplified, Sepio provides a foundation of trust at the most granular level: the physical connection. It delivers what traditional tools can’t—real-time, actionable visibility of every device that plugs in, regardless of who brought it or what it claims to be. By detecting what others miss, enforcing trust without disruption, and integrating with your existing systems, Sepio empowers financial institutions to take control of an overlooked but highly critical threat vector. Start Securing What You Can’t See The physical layer is no longer a safe assumption—it’s a risk. But with Sepio, it becomes a defensible, transparent, and tightly controlled part of your cybersecurity strategy. To learn more about how Sepio can help your organisation reduce hardware-based risk and strengthen compliance in real time, contact us today at info@zerium.co.uk or call +44 (0)20 8191 2191 to arrange a consultation or demo.

The Infrastructure That Runs Nations Is Under Threat From energy grids and water utilities to transport networks and telecommunications systems, national infrastructure forms the foundation of daily life. These systems are becoming smarter, more connected, and more efficient—but also more vulnerable. As operators digitise operations and merge IT and OT environments, they open new pathways for attack. While cybersecurity strategies in this sector have traditionally focused on network protection, access control, and physical security at the facility level, a critical blind spot remains: what devices are physically connected to your infrastructure, and can they be trusted? A Blind Spot with Real-World Consequences Infrastructure environments are often geographically distributed, operate with legacy systems, and rely on field engineers, subcontractors, and remote access to maintain uptime. This creates a challenge in monitoring and controlling the physical devices that connect to operational systems—especially when those systems are offline from central IT or have minimal oversight. Rogue USB drives, tampered diagnostic equipment, or personal devices used by technicians may appear innocuous, but they can introduce malware, bypass authentication, or provide attackers with a direct path into sensitive control systems. These threats are stealthy, hardware-based, and notoriously difficult to detect using traditional cybersecurity tools. Most endpoint protection, antivirus software, and network detection solutions rely on known signatures or network visibility to identify threats. But if a spoofed peripheral masquerades as a keyboard, or if a supply chain implant hides inside a cable, these tools may never even register its presence. Sepio Offers a New Layer of Protection—The Physical Layer Sepio’s Asset Risk Management (ARM) platform is purpose-built to close this gap. It delivers real-time visibility and control at the hardware layer, detecting every device connected to your systems based on its unique physical and electrical properties—not just declared identifiers like MAC addresses or device names. This approach allows critical infrastructure operators to accurately identify, profile, and verify every piece of hardware, even in environments where visibility has traditionally been limited or non-existent. Importantly, Sepio operates passively and without agents. This makes it well-suited to OT environments where downtime is not an option and where intrusive tools could disrupt safety or production systems. Visibility That Builds Operational Resilience For national infrastructure providers, resilience isn’t just about restoring systems after an incident—it’s about preventing incidents from occurring in the first place. With Sepio, organisations gain the ability to detect unauthorised or suspicious devices the moment they connect, preventing them from becoming persistent threats. For example, in an energy substation, Sepio can alert operators if a contractor connects unvetted diagnostic tools. In a water treatment facility, it can detect a foreign USB device introduced into a SCADA system. In a telecom exchange, it can identify tampered networking gear during maintenance or upgrades. These insights give teams the confidence that only trusted, verified hardware is present in the most sensitive parts of their operations—without relying on physical inspections or policy enforcement alone. Supporting Frameworks and National Security Mandates As infrastructure providers are increasingly required to meet national cybersecurity standards—such as the UK’s Cyber Assessment Framework (CAF), the NCSC's principles for critical systems, or international frameworks like NIST and CIS—Sepio provides measurable, actionable support. By maintaining a real-time inventory of physical devices and generating alerts on anomalies, Sepio enables easier compliance and clearer reporting. It also supports the principles of Zero Trust Architecture, allowing organisations to treat all devices as untrusted by default unless verified by physical fingerprint. Designed for Complex, High-Risk Environments Sepio is ideal for environments where hardware changes frequently, where direct oversight is limited, and where IT and OT teams must work together without stepping on each other’s processes. It integrates with existing systems such as SIEMs and access control platforms, enhancing rather than replacing existing defences. Its deployment is fast, frictionless, and non-disruptive—so visibility can be achieved without downtime or configuration headaches. And once in place, it offers assurance that what’s connected is exactly what it claims to be—and nothing more. Defending the Nation Begins at the Edge In an era where cyber-physical systems power entire countries, understanding what devices have access to your infrastructure is not a luxury—it’s a necessity. Attackers are becoming more sophisticated, but so must your defences. Sepio enables national infrastructure providers to move beyond traditional cybersecurity and embrace device-level trust and control—securing the edge, hardening the core, and protecting the services we all rely on. To learn how Sepio can be deployed in your operational environment, or to request a demo of its capabilities, contact info@zerium.co.uk or call +44 (0)20 8191 2191